Click at the images for more detailed overview pages and videos!

Deep Learning in Artificial Neural Networks (NNs) is about credit assignment across many (not just a few) subsequent computational stages or layers, in deep or recurrent NNs. To our knowledge, the ancient expression "Deep Learning" was introduced to the NN field by Aizenberg & Aizenberg & Vandewalle's book (2000) - more in this G+ post. The field itself is much older though. The first Deep Learning systems of the feedforward multilayer perceptron type were created half a century ago (Ivakhnenko et al., 1965, 1967, 1968, 1971). The 1971 paper already described an adaptive deep network with 8 layers of neurons. (Our first general purpose recurrent Deep Learners were published much later, in 1991 - more below.)

Recently the field has experienced a resurgence. Since 2009, our Deep Learning team has won 9 (nine) first prizes in important and highly competitive international pattern recognition competitions (with secret test set known only to the organisers), far more than any other team. Our neural nets also were the first Very Deep Learners to win such contests (e.g., on classification, object detection, segmentation), and the first machine learning methods to reach superhuman performance in such a contest. Since 2009-2011, this has attracted enormous attention from industry. Here the list of won competitions (details in the rightmost column):

9. MICCAI 2013 Grand Challenge on Mitosis Detection
8. ICPR 2012 Contest on Mitosis Detection in Breast Cancer Histological Images
7. ISBI 2012 Brain Image Segmentation Challenge (with superhuman pixel error rate)
6. IJCNN 2011 Traffic Sign Recognition Competition (only our method achieved superhuman results)
5. ICDAR 2011 offline Chinese Handwriting Competition
4. Online German Traffic Sign Recognition Contest
3. ICDAR 2009 Arabic Connected Handwriting Competition
2. ICDAR 2009 Handwritten Farsi/Arabic Character Recognition Competition
1. ICDAR 2009 French Connected Handwriting Competition. Compare the overview page on handwriting recognition.

Our Deep Learning methods also set records in important Machine Learning (ML) benchmarks (details again in the rightmost column):

D. Chinese characters from the ICDAR 2013 competition (3755 classes)
C. The MNIST Handwritten Digits Benchmark (perhaps the most famous ML benchmark; we achieved the 1st human-competitive result in 2011)
B. The CIFAR Image Classification Benchmark
A. The NORB Stereo Vision Object Recognition Benchmark

Remarkably, none of 1-9 & A-D above required the traditional sophisticated computer vision techniques developed over the past six decades or so. Instead, our biologically rather plausible systems are inspired by human brains, and learn to recognize objects from numerous training examples. We use deep, artificial, supervised, feedforward or recurrent (deep by nature) neural networks with many non-linear processing stages.

We started work on Very Deep Learning a quarter-century ago. Back then, Sepp Hochreiter (now professor) was an undergrad student working on Schmidhuber's neural net project. His 1991 thesis [2b] is a Deep Learning milestone: it formally showed that deep networks like the above are hard to train because they suffer from the now famous problem of vanishing or exploding gradients. Since then we have developed various techniques to overcome this obstacle (more here). The first system of 1991 used a stack of recurrent neural networks (RNNs) pre-trained in unsupervised fashion [2a,2c] to compactly encode input sequences, where lower layers of the hierarchy learn to extract compact sequence representations fed to higher layers. This can greatly accelerate subsequent supervised learning [2a,2c]. See [2c] for an experiment with 1200 nonlinear virtual layers. The 1991 system also was the first Neural Hierarchical Temporal Memory.

Today, computing is almost a million times cheaper than it was in 1991. We use graphics cards or GPUs (mini-supercomputers for video games, see picture in 2nd column) to speed up learning on standard CPUs by a factor of up to 50. In 2010, we broke the MNIST (benchmark C) record through GPU-based plain backprop for standard NNs (no unsupervised pre-training, no convolution etc) [6]. Our committees of networks improve the results even further [9-13,17-19].

Pattern recognition through Deep Learning is becoming important for thousands of practical applications. For example, the future of search engines lies in image and video recognition as opposed to traditional text search. Autonomous robots such as driverless cars can greatly profit from it, too (see competitions 4,6). Deep Learning may even have lifesaving impact through medical applications such as cancer detection, perhaps the most important application area, with the highest potential impact (see competitions 8,9). Reference [14] uses fast deep nets to achieve superior hand gesture recognition. Reference [16] uses them to achieve superior steel defect detection, three times better than support vector machines (SVM) trained on commonly used feature descriptors.

Note that the successes 1-9 & A-D above did NOT require any unsupervised pre-training, which is a bit depressing, as we have developed unsupervised learning algorithms for over 25 years. However, the feature detectors (FDs) discovered by our supervised systems resemble those found by our old unsupervised methods such as Predictability Minimization [2e,2g,2h] and Low-Complexity Coding and Decoding (LOCOCODE)[2i].

FD due to semi- linear PM [2e, 2g, 2h]

More Deep Learning Web Sites:

Since Sept 2013: G+ posts on Deep Learning

2014: Deep Learning in Neural Networks: An Overview (invited survey, with a history of Deep Learning since the 1960s, 88 pages, 888 references)

2014: Who Invented Backpropagation? (History of Deep Learning's central algorithm 1960-1970-1981 and beyond)

Deep NNs win MICCAI 2013 Grand Challenge and 2012 ICPR Contest on Mitosis Detection (first Deep Learner to win a contest on object detection in large images)

Deep NNs win 2012 Brain Image Segmentation Contest (first image segmentation competition won by a feedforward Deep Learner)

2012: 8th international pattern recognition contest won since 2009

2011: First superhuman visual pattern recognition in a limited domain (twice better than humans, three times better than the closest artificial competitor, six times better than the best non-neural method)

2009: First official international pattern recognition contests won by Very Deep Learning (connected handwriting through LSTM RNNs: simultaneous segmentation and recognition)

1997: First purely supervised Very Deep Learner

JS' first Deep Learner of 1991 + Deep Learning Timeline 1965-2013 (also summarises the origins of backpropagation, still central for Deep Learning)

1991: Fundamental Deep Learning Problem discovered and analysed and partially solved

2015: Critique of paper by self-proclaimed "Deep Learning Conspiracy" (Nature 521 p 436)

2009 Computer Vision site (precursor of present site)

2013: Compressed Network Search for reinforcement learning RNN video game controllers (> 1,000,000 weights) learning from scratch, using high-dim visual input streams.

Industrial Impact. Apple / Google / Microsoft / Amazon / IBM / Baidu / others are using our recurrent neural networks (especially LSTM) to improve speech recognition, machine translation, image caption generation, syntactic parsing / text-to-speech synthesis, photo-real talking heads / prosody detection / more speech recognition / video-to-text translation, and many other important applications. For example, our LSTM is in Amazon's Alexa, in Facebook's and Google's Machine Translation, in Apple's iPhone, in Google's speech recognition on Android phones and Google's automatic email answering.

Some earlier benchmark records achieved with the help of deep LSTM RNNs, often at big IT companies: Text-to-speech synthesis (Fan et al., Microsoft, Interspeech 2014), Language identification (Gonzalez-Dominguez et al., Google, Interspeech 2014), Large vocabulary speech recognition (Sak et al., Google, Interspeech 2014), Prosody contour prediction (Fernandez et al., IBM, Interspeech 2014), Medium vocabulary speech recognition (Geiger et al., Interspeech 2014), Machine translation (Sutskever et al., Google, NIPS 2014), Audio onset detection (Marchi et al., ICASSP 2014), Social signal classification (Brueckner & Schulter, ICASSP 2014), Arabic handwriting recognition (Bluche et al., DAS 2014), TIMIT phoneme recognition (Graves et al., ICASSP 2013), Optical character recognition (Breuel et al., ICDAR 2013).

Related articles and interviews (2012-16): WIRED (Nov 2016), Bloomberg (Jan 2017), NY Times (Nov 2016, front page), Financial Times (Nov 2016, also here), ACM (long interview of Oct 2016, also IT World & NPA), Inverse (Dec 2016), Intl. Business Times (Feb 2016), BeMyApp (Mar 2016), Informilo (Jan 2016), InfoQ (Mar 2016). Also in leading German language newspapers: ZEIT (May 2016, ZEIT online in June), Spiegel (Europe's top news magazine, Feb 2016), NZZ 1 & 2 (August 2016), Tagesanzeiger (Sep 2016), Beobachter (Sep 2016), CHIP (April 2016), Computerwoche (July 2016), WiWo (Jan 2016), Spiegel (Jan 2016), Focus (Mar 2016), Welt (Mar 2016), SZ (Mar 2016), FAZ (Dec 2015, title page), NZZ (Nov 2015). More in Netzoekonom (Mar 2016), Performer (Oct 2016), WiWo (Feb 2016), Focus (Jan 2016), Bunte (Jan 2016). Earlier: Handelsblatt (Jun 2015), INNS Big Data (Feb 2015), KurzweilAI (Nov 2012)
.

Some of the (ex-)members of our Deep Learning Team: Sepp Hochreiter, Felix Gers, Alex Graves, Dan Ciresan, Ueli Meier, Jonathan Masci. For medical imaging, sine 2012 we also have worked with Alessandro Giusti in the group of Luca Maria Gambardella.

Our work builds on earlier work by great pioneers including Ivakhnenko, Bryson, Kelley, Dreyfus, Linnainmaa, Werbos, Fukushima, Amari, Williams, LeCun, Weng, von der Malsburg, Kohonen, and others (more history here and especially in this historical survey).

SELECTED DEEP LEARNING PUBLICATIONS
(many more here):

[31] J. Schmidhuber. Deep Learning in Neural Networks: An Overview. Neural Networks, Volume 61, January 2015, Pages 85-117, published online in 2014 (DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2014.09.003). Draft of invited survey (88 pages, 888 references): Preprint IDSIA-03-14 / arXiv:1404.7828 [cs.NE]; version v4 (PDF, 8 Oct 2014); LATEX source; complete public BIBTEX file (888 kB). (Older PDF versions: v1 of 30 April; v1.5 of 15 May; v2 of 28 May; v3 of 2 July.) HTML overview page.

[30] J. Schmidhuber. Deep Learning. Scholarpedia, 10(11):32832, 2015.

[29] J. Schmidhuber. On Learning to Think: Algorithmic Information Theory for Novel Combinations of Reinforcement Learning Controllers and Recurrent Neural World Models. Report arXiv:1210.0118 [cs.AI], 2015.

[28] K. Greff, R. K. Srivastava, J. Schmidhuber. Training Very Deep Networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 2015. Preprints arxiv:1505.00387 (May 2015) and arXiv:1507.06228 (Jul 2015). The first working very deep feedforward nets with over 100 layers. Let g, t, h, denote non-linear differentiable functions. Each non-input layer of our highway net computes g(x)x + t(x)h(x), where x is the data from the previous layer. (Like LSTM with forget gates for RNNs.) Microsoft's resnets are a special case of this where g(x)=t(x)=const=1.

[27] M. Stollenga, W. Byeon, M. Liwicki, J. Schmidhuber. Parallel Multi-Dimensional LSTM, With Application to Fast Biomedical Volumetric Image Segmentation. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 2015, in press. Preprint: arxiv:1506.07452.

[26] M. Stollenga, J.Masci, F. Gomez, J. Schmidhuber. Deep Networks with Internal Selective Attention through Feedback Connections. Preprint arXiv:1407.3068 [cs.CV]. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 2014.

[25] J. Koutnik, K. Greff, F. Gomez, J. Schmidhuber. A Clockwork RNN. Proc. 31st International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML), p. 1845-1853, Beijing, 2014. Preprint arXiv:1402.3511 [cs.NE].

[24] R. K. Srivastava, J. Masci, S. Kazerounian, F. Gomez, J. Schmidhuber. Compete to Compute. In Proc. Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS) 2013, Lake Tahoe. PDF.

[23] D. Ciresan, J. Schmidhuber. Multi-Column Deep Neural Networks for Offline Handwritten Chinese Character Classification. Preprint arXiv:1309.0261, 1 Sep 2013.

[22] J. Masci, A. Giusti, D. Ciresan, G. Fricout, J. Schmidhuber. A Fast Learning Algorithm for Image Segmentation with Max-Pooling Convolutional Networks. ICIP 2013. Preprint arXiv:1302.1690. On object detection in large images, now scanned by our deep networks 1500 times faster than with previous methods.

[21] A. Giusti, D. Ciresan, J. Masci, L.M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Fast Image Scanning with Deep Max-Pooling Convolutional Neural Networks. ICIP 2013. Preprint arXiv:1302.1700

[20] D. Ciresan, A. Giusti, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Mitosis Detection in Breast Cancer Histology Images using Deep Neural Networks. MICCAI 2013. PDF.

[19] D. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Schmidhuber. Transfer Learning for Latin and Chinese Characters with Deep Neural Networks. Proc. IJCNN 2012, p 1301-1306, 2012. PDF. Pretrain on one data set, profit on another.

[18] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Masci, J. Schmidhuber. Multi-Column Deep Neural Network for Traffic Sign Classification. Neural Networks 32, p 333-338, 2012. PDF of preprint. (First superhuman visual pattern recognition.)

[17] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Schmidhuber. Multi-column Deep Neural Networks for Image Classification. IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition CVPR 2012, p 3642-3649, 2012. PDF. Longer preprint arXiv:1202.2745v1 [cs.CV].

[16] J. Masci, U. Meier, D. Ciresan, G. Fricout, J. Schmidhuber. Steel Defect Classification with Max-Pooling Convolutional Neural Networks. Proc. IJCNN 2012. PDF.

[15] D. Ciresan, A. Giusti, L. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Deep Neural Networks Segment Neuronal Membranes in Electron Microscopy Images. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2012), Lake Tahoe, 2012. PDF. (See also ISBI EM Competition Abstracts.)

[14] J. Nagi, F. Ducatelle, G. A. Di Caro, D. Ciresan, U. Meier, A. Giusti, F. Nagi, J. Schmidhuber, L. M. Gambardella. Max-Pooling Convolutional Neural Networks for Vision-based Hand Gesture Recognition. Proc. 3rd IEEE Intl. Conf. on Signal & Image Processing and Applications (ICSIPA), Kuala Lumpur, 2011. PDF.

[13] J. Schmidhuber, D. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Masci, A. Graves. On Fast Deep Nets for AGI Vision. In Proc. Fourth Conference on Artificial General Intelligence (AGI-11), Google, Mountain View, California, 2011. PDF. Video.

[12] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Convolutional Neural Network Committees For Handwritten Character Classification. 11th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR 2011), Beijing, China, 2011. PDF.

[11] U. Meier, D. C. Ciresan, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Better Digit Recognition with a Committee of Simple Neural Nets. 11th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR 2011), Beijing, China, 2011. PDF.

[10] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Masci, J. Schmidhuber. A Committee of Neural Networks for Traffic Sign Classification. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN-2011, San Francisco), 2011. PDF.

[9] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Handwritten Digit Recognition with a Committee of Deep Neural Nets on GPUs. ArXiv Preprint arXiv:1103.4487v1 [cs.LG], 23 Mar 2011.

[8] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, J. Masci, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Flexible, High Performance Convolutional Neural Networks for Image Classification. International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-2011, Barcelona), 2011. PDF. ArXiv preprint, 1 Feb 2011. Describes our special breed of GPU-based max-pooling convolutional networks (GPU-MPCNNs), now widely tested/used by research labs (e.g., Univ. Toronto/Google/Stanford) and companies (e.g., Apple) all over the world.

[6] D. C. Ciresan, U. Meier, L. M. Gambardella, J. Schmidhuber. Deep Big Simple Neural Nets For Handwritten Digit Recognition. Neural Computation 22(12): 3207-3220, 2010. ArXiv Preprint arXiv:1003.0358v1 [cs.NE], 1 March 2010. Best results on MNIST with plain backprop for standard NNs (no unsupervised pre-training, no convolution etc).

[5] A. Graves, A. Mohamed, G. E. Hinton. Speech Recognition with Deep Recurrent Neural Networks. ICASSP 2013, Vancouver, 2013. PDF.

[4] A. Graves, J. Schmidhuber. Offline Handwriting Recognition with Multidimensional Recurrent Neural Networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 22, NIPS'22, p 545-552, Vancouver, MIT Press, 2009. PDF.

[3] A. Graves, S. Fernandez, J. Schmidhuber. Multi-Dimensional Recurrent Neural Networks. Intl. Conf. on Artificial Neural Networks ICANN'07, 2007. Preprint: arxiv:0705.2011. PDF.

[3a] A. Graves, S. Fernandez, F. Gomez, J. Schmidhuber. Connectionist Temporal Classification: Labelling Unsegmented Sequence Data with Recurrent Neural Networks. ICML 06, Pittsburgh, 2006. PDF.

Selected papers from the previous millennium (more here):

[2j] F. A. Gers, J. Schmidhuber, F. Cummins. Learning to Forget: Continual Prediction with LSTM. Neural Computation, 12(10):2451-2471, 2000. PDF.

[2i] S. Hochreiter and J. Schmidhuber. Feature extraction through LOCOCODE. Neural Computation 11(3): 679-714, 1999. PDF. HTML (some pictures missing).

[2h] N. N. Schraudolph, M. Eldracher, J. Schmidhuber. Processing Images by Semi-Linear Predictability Minimization. Network, 10(2): 133-169, 1999. PDF.

[2g] J. Schmidhuber and M. Eldracher and B. Foltin. Semilinear predictability minimzation produces well-known feature detectors. Neural Computation, 8(4):773-786, 1996. PDF . HTML. Facilitating supervised Bayes-optimal classification through unsupervised pre-training. Mentions a hierarchy of unsupervised PM stages.

[2f] J. Schmidhuber and D. Prelinger. Discovering predictable classifications. Neural Computation, 5(4):625-635, 1993. PDF. HTML. Compare "Siamese networks".

[2e] J. Schmidhuber. Learning factorial codes by predictability minimization. Neural Computation, 4(6):863-879, 1992. PDF. HTML. Partially motivated by speeding up supervised learning through unsupervised pre-processing.

[2d] S. Hochreiter, J. Schmidhuber. Long Short-Term Memory. Neural Computation, 9(8):1735-1780, 1997. Based on TR FKI-207-95, TUM (1995). PDF. Led to a lot of follow-up work, and is now used by leading IT companies all over the world.

[2c] J. Schmidhuber. Habilitation thesis, TUM, 1993. PDF. An ancient experiment with credit assignment across 1200 time steps or virtual layers and unsupervised pre-training for a stack of recurrent NNs can be found here - try Google Translate in your mother tongue.

[2b] S. Hochreiter. Untersuchungen zu dynamischen neuronalen Netzen. Diploma thesis, TUM, 1991 (advisor J.S.) PDF.

[2a] J. Schmidhuber. Learning complex, extended sequences using the principle of history compression, Neural Computation, 4(2):234-242, 1992 (based on TR FKI-148-91, 1991). PDF.

[1b] J. Schmidhuber. A local learning algorithm for dynamic feedforward and recurrent networks. Connection Science, 1(4):403-412, 1989. PDF. HTML. Local competition in the Neural Bucket Brigade (figures omitted).

Ongoing work on active perception. While Deep Learning methods tend to work fine in many applications, they are passive learners - they do not learn to actively search for the most informative parts of the sensory input. Humans, however, use sequential gaze shifts for visual pattern recognition. This can be much more efficient than the fully parallel one-shot approach. That's why we want to combine the algorithms above with variants of our old method of 1990 [1a] - back then we built what to our knowledge was the first artificial fovea sequentially steered by a learning neural controller. Without a teacher, it used a variant of reinforcement learning to create saccades and find targets in a visual scene (and to track moving targets), although computers were a million times slower back then:

[1a] J. Schmidhuber, R. Huber. Learning to generate artificial fovea trajectories for target detection. International Journal of Neural Systems, 2(1 & 2):135-141, 1991 (figures omitted). Based on TR FKI-128-90, 1990. PDF. HTML. HTML overview with figures.

More on active learning without a teacher in the overview pages on the Formal Theory of Creativity and Curiosity.

Our algorithms not only were the first Very Deep Learners to win official international competitions with secret test sets (since 2009) and to become human-competitive, they also have numerous immediate industrial and medical applications. Apple & Google and many others adopted our techniques. Are you an industrial company that wants to solve interesting pattern recognition problems? Don't hesitate to contact JS. By 2011-12, we already had developed:

1. State-of-the-art handwriting recognition for a software services company.
2. State-of-the-art steel defect detection for the world's largest steel maker.
3. State-of-the-art low-cost pattern recognition for a leading automotive supplier.
4. Low-power variants of our methods for apps running on cell phone chips.

Much more on this has been done by our company NNAISENSE.

Commercial News of 26 Jan 2014: Google acquired for about $600 million the startup Deepmind which is heavily influenced by our former students. Deepmind focuses on Machine Learning (ML) and AI, explicitly mentioning general purpose learning algorithms (more on our work on this here). Deepmind's first members with PhDs in computer science and publications in ML/AI came from my lab: Shane Legg (co-founder) and Daan Wierstra (#4 of Deepmind). Background of the other co-founders: neurobiology & video games (Demis Hassabis) and business (Mustafa Suleyman). Deepmind later also hired my former PhD students Tom Schaul & Alex Graves. They have been working on our deep RNNs: Alex on supervised RNNs, Daan & Tom on RL RNNs and Evolving RNNs (see their papers under the links above). Alex & Daan are also co-authors of one of the earliest deepmind publications (Dec 2013); compare our Compressed Network Search for RNN video game controllers learning from high-dim visual input streams (July 2013). Alex is also lead author of DeepMind's recent Nature paper (2016). See this news link and comments on deepmind's Nature paper (2015) and earlier related work.

Selected invited talks 2010-16: Numerous invited keynotes / plenary talks etc. at international conferences, e. g., keynote for SAP for 6000 people (Barcelona, 10 Jan 2017), ZEIT Reception (WEF Davos, 18 Jan 2017), DLD (Munich, 15-16 Jan 2017), Boston Consulting (Chicago, 17-18 Nov 2016), TED-style talk for WIRED 2016 (London, 4 Nov 2016), General Electric (New York, 12-14 Oct 2016), NVIDIA GTC conference (Amsterdam, 28 Sept 2016), Public Interview for ZEIT (Berlin, Sept 2016), CONLL keynote (Berlin, Aug 2016), IJCNN 2016 plenary talk (Vancouver, July 2016), EU Communication Summit keynote (Bruxelles, July 2016), BMW & Modern Media Group (Beijing, May 2016), Pictet (London, May 2016), Microsoft (NYC, May 2016), TED-style talk for Pathfinder Berlin (Handelsblatt 70th anniversary, May 2016), TED-style talk for DLD (Munich, Jan 2016), GRI Chairman Retreat (St. Moritz, Jan 2016), Renaissance Technologies (NYC, Dec 2015), Big Data Conference (Stuttgart, Oct 2015), Financial Times (London, Nov 2015), Delft Robotics (NL, Oct 2015), 2015 Keynote for Swiss eHealth summit, 2015 IEEE distinguished lecture / Microsoft, Amazon (Seattle), 2015 INNS BigData (San Francisco), AGI 2015 keynote (Berlin), BigTechDay keynote (Munich, 2015), Uhlenbruch Portfolio Management (Frankfurt, 2015), Huawei STW 2015 keynote (Shenzhen / Hongkong), TED-style talk for XPRIZE 2015 (Los Angeles), INNS-CIIS 2014 keynote (Brunei), ICONIP 2014 (Malaysia), KAIST 2014 (Korea), CIG 2013 keynote (Niagara Falls), TEDx UHasselt 2012, TEDx Lausanne 2012, Bionetics 2012 keynote, IScIDE 2012 keynote (Nanjing, China), IJCNN 2011 (San Jose, California), World Science Festival 2011 (New York City), Oxford Winter Conference on Intelligence 2011, Joint Conferences ECML 2010 / PKDD 2010 (Barcelona; banquet talk).

Check out talk slides of 2015!

Copyright notice (2013): This page was derived from the computer vision page. Fibonacci web design by J.S., who will be delighted if you use this web page for educational and non-commercial purposes, including articles for Wikipedia and similar sites. Last update 2017.
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